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Linguistics






Mr. / Girgis



  E-mail    : girgishanna027@gmail.com





Linguistics




 



Objectives:


By the end of the lecture, learners become able to 

know, practice and apply:


1-Linguistics Definition.

2- Importance of linguistics.

3-Branches of Linguistics.


 



Warm up:


Hello, my great learners.

My global site is:     http://www.bchmsg.yolasite.com/



Today's lecture talks about:

1-Linguistics Definition.

2- Importance of linguistics.

3-Branches of Linguistics.


 



1-Introduction


Usually, when you think of linguistics the word 

“languages” comes to mind, but Linguistics is the 

scientific study of language*. 



Linguistics aims to define how languages are 

developed in the human mind and describes how 

human languages are formed and how they work.

 This includes language structure, socio-linguistics,

 grammar, syntax, semantics and, phonetics.



 



Definition:


It is the scientific study of language and involves an

analysis of language form, language meaning,

and language in context.


Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules 

governing the structure of sentences), semantics

(meaning), morphology (structure of words), phonetics

(speech sounds and equivalent gestures in

sign languages), phonology (the abstract sound system

 of a particular language, and analogous systems

 of sign languages), and pragmatics (how the context 

of use contributes to meaning).


 



Why is linguistics important?



Linguists are in demand because their knowledge of 

linguistics helps us to better understand our place in

 the world. By choosing to study linguistics, your 

knowledge of language structure can be applied to 

improving verbal and written communications

 through translation and treating speech impediments.


Here are some  reasons why English is important :



Global Communication:


English is the most widely spoken second language 

globally, making it a bridge language that connects 

people from different cultures. Proficiency in English

 enables individuals to communicate effectively with

 people from diverse backgrounds, fostering

 international understanding and collaboration.




Education Opportunities:

English is the primary language of instruction in many

 prestigious universities and educational institutions 

worldwide. Acquiring strong English language skills

 opens doors to educational opportunities in top-ranked 

universities, scholarships, and research programs.




Career Advancement: 

English language skills are highly valued by employers

 in various industries. Proficiency in English enhances 

employability and opens doors to a wider range of job

 opportunities, both locally and internationally. 

Many high-paying jobs require a strong command of 

English, especially in fields such as international

 business, tourism, journalism, and academia.




Cultural Enrichment: 

English is not just a language; it is also a gateway to 

literature, art, and culture. By learning English, 

individuals gain access to a vast collection of literary 

masterpieces, films, music, and other forms of 

creative expression. This exposure expands cultural 

horizons and provides a deeper understanding 

of the world.


 



2-Body:



Branches



Linguistics include :


Morphology, Syntax, Phonetics, Phonology, Semantics, 

Pragmatics, Sociology-linguistics, Language Acquisition, 

Historical linguistics, Classification of language

 and Bibliography.



  • Language Structure: How languages are organized, including phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.




  • Phonetics: The study of the physical sounds of human speech, including articulatory, acoustic, and auditory phonetics.




  • Syntax: The rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences and phrase formation.




  • Semantics: The study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.




  • Language Families: The classification of languages into families based on historical and genetic relationships, such as Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Afro-Asiatic, etc.




  • Other Topics: Pragmatics, socio-linguistics, language acquisition, dialect-ology, computational linguistics, and more.


 



Language Structure




1. Meaning:


Language structure refers to the way words, phrases, 

and sentences are organized and arranged to convey 

meaning.


It encompasses the rules and patterns that govern how 

language is constructed, including grammar, syntax, 

morphology, and phonology. Essentially, it is how

 language is systematically built to facilitate clear 

communication.


It refers to the systematic arrangement and organisation

of words, phrases, and sentences, which enables clear

and coherent communication.



Key Points:


  • The five main components of language are phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, syntax, and context. Along with grammar, semantics, and pragmatics, these components work together to create meaningful communication among individuals.



  • A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a change of meaning within a language but that doesn’t have meaning by itself.




  • A morpheme is the smallest unit of a word that provides a specific meaning to a string of letters (which is called a phoneme). There are two main types of morpheme: free morphemes and bound morphemes.



  • A lexeme is the set of all the inflected forms of a single word.



  • Syntax is the set of rules by which a person constructs full sentences.



  • Context is how everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning.




The Terms in detail:


Phonemes



A phoneme is the basic unit of phonology. It is the smallest 

unit of sound that may cause a change of meaning within 

a language, but that doesn’t have meaning by itself. 

For example, in the words “bake” and “brake,” only one 

phoneme has been altered, but a change in meaning has 

been triggered. The phoneme /r/ has no meaning on its 

own, but by appearing in the word it has completely 

changed the word’s meaning!



Phonemes correspond to the sounds of the alphabet, 

although there is not always a one-to-one relationship 

between a letter and a phoneme (the sound made 

when you say the word). For example, the word “dog” 

has three phonemes: /d/, /o/, and /g/. However, the word 

“shape,” despite having five letters, has only three 

phonemes: /sh/, /long-a/, and /p/. The English language 

has approximately 45 different phonemes, which 

correspond to letters or combinations of letters. 

Through the process of segmentation, a phoneme 

can have a particular pronunciation in one word and a 

slightly different pronunciation in another.





Morphemes



Morphemes, the basic unit of morphology, are the smallest

 meaningful unit of language. Thus, a morpheme is a series 

of phonemes that has a special meaning. If a morpheme

 is altered in any way, the entire meaning of the word can

 be changed. Some morphemes are individual words

 (such as “eat” or “water”). These are known as free 

morphemes because they can exist on their own. 



Other morphemes are prefixes, suffixes, or other linguistic 

pieces that aren’t full words on their own but do affect 

meaning (such as the “-s” at the end of “cats” or the 

“re-” at the beginning of “redo.”) Because these 

morphemes must be attached to another word to have 

meaning, they are called bound morphemes.



Within the category of bound morphemes, there are 

two additional subtypes: derivational and inflectional. 

Derivational morphemes change the meaning or part 

of speech of a word when they are used together. 



For example, the word “sad” changes from an adjective 

to a noun when “-ness” (sadness) is added to it. “Action” 

changes in meaning when the morpheme “re-” is added 

to it, creating the word “reaction.” Inflectional morphemes 

modify either the tense of a verb or the number value of 

a noun; for example, when you add an “-s” to “cat,” the 

number of cats changes from one to more than one.






Lexemes



Lexemes are the set of inflected forms taken by a single 

word. For example, members of the lexeme RUN include 

“run” (the uninflected form), “running” (inflected form), 

and “ran.” This lexeme excludes “runner” (a derived term

—it has a derivational morpheme attached).



Another way to think about lexemes is that they are

 the set of words that would be included under one 

entry in the dictionary—”running” and “ran” would be

 found under “run,” but “runner” would not.




Syntax



Syntax is a set of rules for constructing full sentences

 out of words and phrases. Every language has a

 different set of syntactic rules, but all languages 

have some form of syntax. In English, the smallest

 form of a sentence is a noun phrase (which might

 just be a noun or a pronoun) and a verb phrase

 (which may be a single verb).



 Adjectives and adverbs can be added to the sentence

 to provide further meaning. Word order matters in 

English, although in some languages, order is of less 

importance. For example, the English sentences 

“The baby ate the carrot” and “The carrot ate the baby” 

do not mean the same thing, even though they contain

 the exact same words. In languages like Finnish, word 

order doesn’t matter for general meaning—different 

word orders are used to emphasize different parts 

of the sentence.




Context


Context is how everything within language works

 together to convey a particular meaning. Context 

includes tone of voice, body language, and the words

 being used. Depending on how a person says something, 

holds his or her body, or emphasizes certain points of a 

sentence, a variety of different messages can be conveyed.



For example, the word “awesome,” when said with 

a big smile, means the person is excited about a situation. 

“Awesome,” said with crossed arms, rolled eyes, and a 

sarcastic tone, means the person is not thrilled with the 

situation.





2. Kinds of Language Structure



a) Phonological Structure


  • Concerned with sounds of language (phonemes) and their patterns.


  • Example: The sound pattern /kæt/ for the word "cat."



b) Morphological Structure


  • Focuses on the formation of words from morphemes (smallest units of meaning).


  • Example: "unhappiness" = un- (prefix) + happy (root) + -ness (suffix).



c) Syntactic Structure


  • Deals with sentence formation and the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences.


  • Example: "The dog chased the cat" follows subject-verb-object order.



d) Semantic Structure


  • Concerns with the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.


  • Example: The sentence "He is a star" can mean a literal celestial body or a metaphorical praise.



e) Pragmatic Structure


  • Focuses on language use in context and how meaning is affected by situation.



  • Example: Saying "Can you pass the salt?" is a request, not a question about ability.






3. Examples of Language Structure


  • Phonological: /b/ and /p/ sounds differentiate "bat" and "pat".


  • Morphological: "Teacher" from "teach" + "-er".


  • Syntactic: "She reads books" (subject + verb + object).


  • Semantic: "Light" can mean illumination or not heavy.


  • Pragmatic: Saying "Nice job!" can be sincere or sarcastic depending on context.






Summary Table




Type of Structure Focus Example
Phonological Sounds and pronunciation /kæt/ (cat)
Morphological Word formation "happiness" = "happy" + "-ness"
Syntactic Sentence construction "The boy runs."
Semantic Meaning of words and sentences "Bank" (riverbank vs. financial institution)
Pragmatic Language in context "Can you open the window?" (request)

 



Feedback:


What have we learnt today?

 



3-Conclusion:


In conclusion, understanding the different kinds of 

language structures helps us appreciate how language 

functions systematically to communicate effectively.


 




4-(Q & A) Session:



I allocate time for questions and answers to clarify doubts and 

encourage discussion. This segment reinforces learning by 

addressing specific concerns.



1-What is meant by' Linguistics"?


2-To what extent is"Linguistics" useful?


3-Linguistics include several branches. Discuss.


4-The five main components of language are phonemes,


morphemes, lexemes, syntax, and context. Along with grammar,


semantics, and pragmatics, these components work together


 to create meaningful communication among individuals.


Illustrate.


5-What are the kind of language structure?


6-Give examples of language structure.


With my regards. Thank you. Good bye.


 


Practical English Phonetics I – English and American Studies at Sofia  University

Hair phonetic transcription, Hair, 29 Fashion Types - nextdoorlongbeach.com

 



Phonetics


Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that studies the 

physical sounds of human speech. It examines how 

sounds are produced (articulatory phonetics), 

transmitted (acoustic phonetics), and received 

(auditory phonetics).




Meaning of Phonetics


Phonetics focuses on the physical properties of speech 

sounds, regardless of the language. It involves analyzing 

the features of sounds such as their articulation, acoustic 

properties, and auditory perception.



Kinds of Phonetics



  1. Articulatory Phonetics
    Studies how speech sounds are produced by the vocal organs (e.g., tongue, lips, vocal cords).
    Example: The difference between /p/ and /b/ is in voicing; /p/ is voiceless, /b/ is voiced.

  2. Acoustic Phonetics
    Analyzes the physical properties of speech sounds as sound waves, such as frequency, amplitude, and duration.
    Example: The spike in the wave pattern of a long vowel like /aː/ compared to a short vowel /a/.

  3. Auditory Phonetics
    Examines how speech sounds are perceived by the ear and processed by the brain.
    Example: Recognizing sounds like /s/ and /z/ as distinct despite similar pronunciation.




Examples of Speech Sounds



  • Vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/


  • Consonants: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /s/, /z/, /m/, /n/, /l/, /r/




Summary


Phonetics provides the scientific foundation for 

understanding speech sounds, their production, 

transmission, and reception. It is essential in fields

 like linguistics, language teaching, speech therapy, 

and artificial speech systems.


 



Syntax



Meaning:


Syntax refers to the set of rules and principles that

 govern the structure and arrangement of words, 

phrases, and clauses in a language to form 

grammatically correct sentences. It deals with how

different elements of a sentence are organized to 

convey meaning effectively.



Kinds of Syntax:


  1. Basic Syntax:

    • Focuses on the fundamental rules of sentence formation.

    • Concerned with the order of words in simple sentences.

  2. Transformational Syntax:

    • Studies how sentences can be transformed into different forms while maintaining their meaning.

    • Developed by Noam Chomsky, involving transformations like questions from statements.

  3. Generative Syntax:

    • A theory that suggests that underlying rules generate all possible sentences in a language.

    • Emphasizes the innate capacity of humans to produce language.

  4. Syntactic Structures:

    • Analyzes the structure of sentences through phrase structure rules.

  5. Dependency Syntax:

    • Focuses on the relationships between words in a sentence, such as which words depend on others.



Examples:


  1. Simple sentence:

    • The cat sleeps.
      (Subject + Verb + Object)

  2. Complex sentence:

    • Although it was raining, she went for a walk.
      (Main clause + subordinate clause)

  3. Transformational example:

    • He is reading a book. (statement)
    • Is he reading a book? (question, transformed from the statement)

  4. Sentence with different word order:

    • The dog chased the cat.
    • Chased the dog the cat. (less common, but illustrates syntactic structure)




Summary:


Syntax is essential in understanding how sentences are

 constructed and interpreted in a language. Different

 kinds of syntactic analysis help linguists understand 

language structure, from basic sentence formation to 

complex transformational rules.


 


Semantics



Definition of Semantics:


Semantics is the branch of linguistics that studies the 

meaning of words, phrases, sentences, and texts.

 It explores how language conveys meaning and how 

different expressions relate to the concepts or objects

 they refer to.





Meaning of Semantics


Semantics focuses on understanding how language 

expresses meaning, including the relationships between

 signs and what they stand for, as well as the

 interpretation of meaning in context.





Kinds of Semantics




  1. Lexical Semantics:

    • Concerned with the meaning of words and their relationships.

    • Example: Synonyms ("big" and "large"), antonyms ("hot" and "cold"), polysemy ("bank" as a financial institution or riverbank).



  1. Phrasal and Sentential Semantics:

    • Focuses on how meanings combine in phrases and sentences.

    • Example: The difference in meaning between “The cat is on the mat” and “The mat is on the cat.”



  1. Formal Semantics:

    • Uses formal logic to analyze meaning precisely.

    • Example: Analyzing the logical structure of conditionals like “If it rains, then the ground gets wet.”



  1. Cognitive Semantics

  2. Considers how language reflects human cognition and thought processes.

    • Example: Concepts like “anger” and “joy” are expressed through various words and metaphors.




Examples of Semantics:




Type of Meaning Example Explanation
Lexical "Book" (a set of written pages) The specific meaning of the word "book."
Semantic Relations Synonyms: "Happy" and "Joyful" Words with similar meanings.

Antonyms: "Hot" and "Cold" Words with opposite meanings.

Hyponyms: "Rose" and "Flower" "Rose" is a specific type within the category "flower."
Sentential "It is raining." The overall meaning conveyed by the sentence.

"All humans are mortal." A universal statement expressing a general truth.
Ambiguity "He saw her duck." Can mean he saw her lower her head or saw her pet duck.



Summary


In summary, semantics is essential for understanding

 how language encodes meaning, with various types 

and examples illustrating its scope across words, 

phrases, and sentences.


 


Pragmatics


Meaning:


Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics that studies how 

context influences the way language is interpreted.

 It focuses on the ways people use language in real-life 

situations to communicate effectively, beyond the literal 

meaning of words.



Kinds of Pragmatics:


  1. Deictic Expressions: Words or phrases whose meaning depends on the context, such as "this," "that," "here," "now," "you," "me."



  1. Speech Acts: The actions performed via speaking, like requesting, promising, apologizing, commanding.



  1. Conversational Implicature: Implied meanings that are not explicitly stated but understood through context.



  1. Presupposition: Assumptions or beliefs implied by an utterance.



  1. Politeness and Social Context: How social relationships affect language use, including politeness strategies.



Examples:


  1. Deictic Expression:

    • Person A: "Can you pass me that book?" (The meaning of "that" depends on what is near the speaker or listener at that moment.)



  1. Speech Act:

    • Saying "I apologize" is performing the act of apologizing.
    • Saying "Could you open the window?" is a request.



  1. Conversational Implicature:

    • If someone says, "It's cold in here," they might be implying "Please close the window," even if they didn't say it explicitly.



  1. Politeness:

    • Saying "Would you mind helping me?" instead of "Help me" shows politeness and respect.




Summary:


Pragmatics helps us understand how people communicate 

meaning through context, social norms, and shared 

knowledge, making language a powerful tool for

 effective interaction.


 


Sociolinguistics


Socio-linguistics is the branch of linguistics that studies 

how language varies and changes in social groups, and 

how social factors influence language use. It explores

 the relationship between language and society,

 including aspects like social identity, power, culture,

 and context.



Meaning


Sociolinguistics examines how language functions in 

social contexts, focusing on variations in speech based 

on factors such as region, class, gender, age, ethnicity, 

and social setting. It seeks to understand how language 

reflects and shapes social identities and relationships.



Kinds of Sociolinguistics



  1. Variationist Sociolinguistics: Studies how language varies systematically across different social groups and contexts. Example: Dialect studies.



  1. Interactional Sociolinguistics: Focuses on how language is used in conversation and social interactions to construct social meaning.



  1. Ethnography of Communication: Examines how cultural norms influence language use within specific communities.



  1. Sociolinguistic Theory: Explores broader theoretical issues about language variation and social structure.



  1. Language and Identity: Investigates how language contributes to social identities like gender, ethnicity, or class.



Examples



  • Dialects and Accents: Different regions have distinct ways of speaking (e.g., British English vs. American English).



  • Code-Switching: Switching between languages or dialects depending on social context (e.g., bilingual communities).



  • Gendered Speech: Men and women may use different linguistic features in certain contexts.



  • Language and Power: Formal language used by authority figures versus informal speech among friends.



  • Social Class and Vocabulary: Certain words or pronunciations associated with socioeconomic status.




Summary

In summary, sociolinguistics helps us understand

 the dynamic relationship between society and language, 

revealing how language both influences and reflects 

social identities and structures.


 


Language acquisition



Meaning:


Language acquisition is the process by which humans

 learn and develop the ability to understand, produce, 

and use language effectively. It involves acquiring 

vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and the social 

and cultural norms associated with communication.



Kinds of Language Acquisition:


First Language Acquisition:


The natural process of learning one's native language 

during early childhood.

Example: A child learning to speak English by interacting 

with family members.




  1. Second Language Acquisition:

    • Learning a new language after already having mastered a first language, often through formal education or immersion.
    • Example: An adult learning Spanish in a classroom setting.



  1. Foreign Language Acquisition:

    • Learning a language in a non-native environment, often with limited immersion.

    • Example: A student studying French in their home country without frequent interaction with native speakers.



  1. Third Language Acquisition:

    • Learning additional languages beyond the first two, often building on previous knowledge.

    • Example: A person who speaks English and Spanish then learning German.



Examples :


  • A baby begins to babble at around 6 months and then starts forming words by around 12 months.



  • A child learns to ask questions and form sentences as part of their language development.



  • An adult traveling to Japan may learn to order food and ask for directions in Japanese through language classes or self-study.



Summary:


Language acquisition encompasses various processes

 and stages through which individuals learn and become 

proficient in languages, whether as their first language 

during childhood or additional languages later in life.


 


 Dialectology


Meaning :


Dialectology is the branch of linguistics that studies 

regional or social variations in language, known as 

dialects. It examines how language varies across 

different geographic areas or social groups, analyzing 

differences in pronunciation (phonology), vocabulary 

(lexicon), grammar (syntax and morphology), and usage.



Kinds of Dialects:


  1. Regional Dialects: Variations of a language spoken in different geographic areas.
    Example: American English vs. British English; the Southern dialect in the U.S.



  1. Social Dialects (Sociolects): Variations associated with social classes, education levels, or social groups.
    Example: Cockney (London working class) vs. Received Pronunciation (standard British).



  1. Ethnic or Cultural Dialects: Variations influenced by ethnicity or cultural identity.
    Example: African American Vernacular English (AAVE).



  1. Historical Dialects: Older forms of language that have evolved over time.
    Example: Middle English dialects from Chaucer’s time.



Examples of Dialects:


  • British English Dialects: Cockney, Scouse (Liverpool), Geordie (Newcastle).



  • American English Dialects: Southern American, New York City English, Midwest English.



  • Other Languages:
    • Spanish dialects in Spain vs. Latin American Spanish.
    • Chinese dialects like Mandarin, Cantonese, Shanghainese.




Summary:


Dialectology helps linguists understand how languages 

evolve and differ across regions and social groups, 

shedding light on cultural identities and historical

 language development.


 


Computational linguistics



Definition:


Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that 

combines computer science and linguistics to develop 

algorithms and models that enable computers to 

understand, interpret, generate, and respond to 

human language.





Meaning:



It involves creating computational tools and systems that 

can process natural language (spoken or written) in a way 

that is meaningful and useful. This includes tasks such as 

language translation, speech recognition, sentiment 

analysis, and information extraction.






Kinds of Computational Linguistics:



  1. Natural Language Processing (NLP):

    • Focuses on enabling computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language.

    • Examples: Chatbots, virtual assistants (like Siri or Alexa), machine translation.



  1. Natural Language Understanding (NLU):

    • Concerned with machine comprehension of human language.
    • Examples: Sentiment analysis, question-answering systems.




  1. Natural Language Generation (NLG):

    • Focuses on producing human-like language output from data or machine representations.
    • Examples: Automated report generation, summarization.




  1. Speech Processing:

    • Deals with recognizing and synthesizing spoken language.
    • Examples: Speech-to-text systems, voice-controlled devices.




  1. Computational Syntax and Semantics:

    • Analyzes sentence structure and meaning.
    • Examples: Parsing algorithms, semantic role labeling.




  1. Corpus Linguistics:

    • Uses large collections of text (corpora) for linguistic analysis.
    • Examples: Frequency analysis, collocation detection.





Examples of Applications:



  • Machine Translation: Google Translate translates text or speech from one language to another.



  • Sentiment Analysis: Analyzing social media posts to determine public opinion.



  • Chat-bots and Virtual Assistants: Siri, Alexa, and customer service bots respond to user queries.



  • Information Extraction: Extracting relevant data from large texts, such as extracting names, dates, or locations from documents.



  • Speech Recognition: Transcribing spoken words into written text for dictation software.


  • Text Summarization: Automatically generating concise summaries of lengthy articles.





Summary:


Computational linguistics bridges language and

 technology, enabling machines to process and 

generate human language through various methods 

and applications, significantly impacting communication, 

information processing, and automation.


 


Click below to learn about each:


Introduction to the linguistics of English.


What is Linguistics?


What is Morphology?


What is Syntax?


What is Phonetics?


What is Phonology?


What is Semantics?





What is Neuro-linguistics?


What is Sociolinguistics?


What is Language Acquisition?


What is Historical Linguistics?


Classification of Languages


Linguistics Bibliography


What is Pragmatics?



Collocation:


A collocation is two or more words that often go together.


These combinations just sound "right" to native English


speakers, who use them all the time.


Click here to know more about Collocation.


 




Examples:


Word "BIG":


The word big is often used in collocations with a 


happening or event, for example:


a big accomplishment


a big decision


a big disappointment


a big failure


a big improvement


a big mistake


a big surprise



Word " Great":



EX; Great admiration, anger, enjoyment,


excitement, fun,happiness, joy,....."


Other Collocations :


Get a chance, get a job, get ready, get a ticket, get a

call, save and sound, sales force, satisfy demand, satisfy, keep a diary, keep a promise, keep a

secret, keep an appointment, keep busy, keep fit,

 keep in touch, keep quiet, kick a goal, know better,....


 



Kinds of Collocations:



Adjective and noun



Bright color.



Nouns and verbs


The internet has created opportunities for his company.



Noun + noun


a surge of anger


a sense of pride


a pang of nostalgia



Verb and expression with prepositions


You could see his sister swelling with pride.


I was filled with horror when I read the newspaper


 report of the war.


When she spilt apple-juice on her new blue skirt the


 little girl burst into tears.



Verbs and adverbs


He pulled steadily on the rope and helped her to safety.


She placed the beautiful jar gently on the window ledge.


‘I love you and want to marry you,’ Michael whispered


softly to Clare.


He smiled proudly as he looked at the photos of his


 new granddaughter.



Adverbs and adjectives


Ben and Jane are happily married.


You are fully aware that there are serious problems.


George was blissfully unaware that he was in danger.


 


Female teacher and schoolgirl in classroom Stock Photo - Alamy



Idioms:

Image result for Idioms



English Language is rich in its idiomatic expressions or

 in other words, it is rich in its idioms as a an important

resource of knowledge in English .   An idiom is a

common word or phrase with a culturally understood

 meaning that differs from what its composite words'

denotations would suggest.



If English isn't your native language, the best thing that

you can do is have conversations with native speakers

and ask them about phrases that you don't understand.

Idiomatic expressions are a type of informal English 

that have a meaning different from the meaning of the

words in the expression.



Since idioms are influenced by the culture, learning the

 idioms of a language can be very interesting and

 enlightening! These idioms are various and several. 

At the same time , they are  little difficult studies.

The learner must make great efforts to master them.


 


Idioms :



A)  A        B          C       D



B)  E        F        G         H



C)  I        J        K           l



D) M      N       O           P



E) Q       R       S       T



F) U      V     W  



X      Y      Z



 Idioms lesson video.



Examples:


A day late and a dollar short


A fool and his money are soon parted


A fool at 40 is a fool forever


Around the clock


Arm and a leg


Make waves, make or break, off the top of your head,


off hands, off the wall, out of the woods, out of the left 


field, ugly as a stick, uncle Sam, under a cloud, up to 


the neck, wag the dog, waiting in the wings, whole nine


 yards, whole shebang,


 


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Phrasal Verbs:


 It’s like cooking: combine flour and water, stick it in the

oven for a bit, and you have bread. If you combine a verb

 and certain prepositions, and stick it somewhere in a

 sentence, you have a phrasal verb.


However, baking the dough in a gas oven will obviously

result in a different flavor than baking the dough over an

 open fire; phrasal verbs don’t require such varied

 treatment to have a different meaning, even if you’re

 working with the same two words.


Sometimes all that’s required is they phrasal verb being

used in a different room of the house. This is where

 the idiomatic meaning comes in.


Click here to know more about Phrasal Verbs.


 



Examples:




Look:



Look at, Look for, Look out, Look after, Look 

like, Look up, Look around, Look back, Look down, 

Look in,......




Get:



up, back, in, out, on, off, along, ahead, on, in,.....





Pick:


Pick up, Pick out, Take back, come up with, pay for, 


sell off, sell out, try on, try out, bring in, queue, fork 


out, splash out, blow up, break down,...



Click here to know more about Phrasal Verbs.


 


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Slang



Slang is a type of language consisting of words and

 phrases that are considered to be very informal more

common in speech than in writing typically restricted

to a particular context or group of people.


The problem for learners of English is to know when

or when not to use slang. Many people condemn slang,

but in fact we all use it. The trick is to use slang in the

 right context.



For the learner, perhaps the first thing to remember is

 that slang is normally spoken, not written. The second

 thing is that you may wish to learn slang so that you

can understand it when you hear it, but not

necessarily to use it.


Click here to know more about Slang of English Language.

 


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Examples:


Bail — Intransitive verb for leaving abruptly.


Feeling blue; have the blues —


A feeling of depression or sadness.


A buck — Slang term for a the American dollar.


By the skin of (my/your/his/her) teeth — just barely.


Creep (n.) —  An unpleasantly weird/strange person.



Couch Potato — A lazy person who spends the bulk

of their time engaged in things that can be done while

sitting on a couch.



Cram — To study feverishly before an exam typically


done after neglecting to study consistently.


Crash — To abruptly fall  asleep, or to show up without


 invitation.


Down to earth — And adjective for practicality and


 lack of pretense.


Drive up the wall — To irritate.

 


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Chunks


When experienced readers read a text, they are able

 to recognize groups of words, such as noun phrases

or verb phrases, that go together to create meaning.

This is known as 'chunking' and it is a way of

describing how fluent readers are able

to read a text.


Click here to know more about Chunks.   

 


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1-Chunks in speaking:


Examples:


We use chunks like:


1-You know,


2-You know what I mean,


3-I know what you’re saying,to check and show 


understanding between speaker and listener.

 



2-Chunks in writing:


On the other hand,................


First of all..............


As a matter of fact,...


As a result,..........


And so forth,..........


 


3-Chunks as frames:



1- I don't know if...............


2-You know the boy who cried in the street yesterday?

Image result for chunks in english



Other Resources:


2-) Prepositions.


3-Englisgh Grammar


External Links:


1-Other Idioms



2-British slang


3-Australian slang


4-American slang


5-What is "Linguistics"?


6-British and Australian slang


7-American and Australian slang

Relevant topics:


Click here to go to online English Grammar and


vocabulary tests with automated scoring, online, too.


1-English Grammar.


2-English vocabulary.


3-English collocations


4-English Slangs.


5-English idioms and phrasal verbs.


6-English Business vocabulary.


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