Linguistics

Mr. / Girgis

E-mail : girgishanna027@gmail.com

Linguistics

Objectives:

By the end of the lecture, learners become able to

know, practice and apply:

1-Linguistics Definition.

2- Importance of linguistics.

3-Branches of Linguistics.

Warm up:

Hello, my great learners.

My global site is: http://www.bchmsg.yolasite.com/

Today's lecture talks about:

1-Linguistics Definition.

2- Importance of linguistics.

3-Branches of Linguistics.

1-Introduction

Usually, when you think of linguistics the word

“languages” comes to mind, but Linguistics is the

scientific study of language*.

Linguistics aims to define how languages are

developed in the human mind and describes how

human languages are formed and how they work.

This includes language structure, socio-linguistics,

grammar, syntax, semantics and, phonetics.

Definition:

It is the scientific study of language and involves an

analysis of language form, language meaning,

and language in context.

Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules

governing the structure of sentences), semantics

(meaning), morphology (structure of words), phonetics

(speech sounds and equivalent gestures in

sign languages), phonology (the abstract sound system

of a particular language, and analogous systems

of sign languages), and pragmatics (how the context

of use contributes to meaning).

Why is linguistics important?

Linguists are in demand because their knowledge of

linguistics helps us to better understand our place in

the world. By choosing to study linguistics, your

knowledge of language structure can be applied to

improving verbal and written communications

through translation and treating speech impediments.

Here are some reasons why English is important :

Global Communication:

English is the most widely spoken second language

globally, making it a bridge language that connects

people from different cultures. Proficiency in English

enables individuals to communicate effectively with

people from diverse backgrounds, fostering

international understanding and collaboration.

Education Opportunities:

English is the primary language of instruction in many

prestigious universities and educational institutions

worldwide. Acquiring strong English language skills

opens doors to educational opportunities in top-ranked

universities, scholarships, and research programs.

Career Advancement:

English language skills are highly valued by employers

in various industries. Proficiency in English enhances

employability and opens doors to a wider range of job

opportunities, both locally and internationally.

Many high-paying jobs require a strong command of

English, especially in fields such as international

business, tourism, journalism, and academia.

Cultural Enrichment:

English is not just a language; it is also a gateway to

literature, art, and culture. By learning English,

individuals gain access to a vast collection of literary

masterpieces, films, music, and other forms of

creative expression. This exposure expands cultural

horizons and provides a deeper understanding

of the world.

2-Body:

Branches

Linguistics include :

Morphology, Syntax, Phonetics, Phonology, Semantics,

Pragmatics, Sociology-linguistics, Language Acquisition,

Historical linguistics, Classification of language

and Bibliography.

Language Structure: How languages are organized, including phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.

Phonetics: The study of the physical sounds of human speech, including articulatory, acoustic, and auditory phonetics.

Syntax: The rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences and phrase formation.

Semantics: The study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.

Language Families: The classification of languages into families based on historical and genetic relationships, such as Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Afro-Asiatic, etc.

Other Topics: Pragmatics, socio-linguistics, language acquisition, dialect-ology, computational linguistics, and more.

Language Structure

1. Meaning:

Language structure refers to the way words, phrases,

and sentences are organized and arranged to convey

meaning.

It encompasses the rules and patterns that govern how

language is constructed, including grammar, syntax,

morphology, and phonology. Essentially, it is how

language is systematically built to facilitate clear

communication.

It refers to the systematic arrangement and organisation

of words, phrases, and sentences, which enables clear

and coherent communication.

Key Points:

The five main components of language are phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, syntax, and context. Along with grammar, semantics, and pragmatics, these components work together to create meaningful communication among individuals.

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a change of meaning within a language but that doesn’t have meaning by itself.

A morpheme is the smallest unit of a word that provides a specific meaning to a string of letters (which is called a phoneme). There are two main types of morpheme: free morphemes and bound morphemes.

A lexeme is the set of all the inflected forms of a single word.

Syntax is the set of rules by which a person constructs full sentences.

Context is how everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning.

The Terms in detail:

Phonemes

A phoneme is the basic unit of phonology. It is the smallest

unit of sound that may cause a change of meaning within

a language, but that doesn’t have meaning by itself.

For example, in the words “bake” and “brake,” only one

phoneme has been altered, but a change in meaning has

been triggered. The phoneme /r/ has no meaning on its

own, but by appearing in the word it has completely

changed the word’s meaning!

Phonemes correspond to the sounds of the alphabet,

although there is not always a one-to-one relationship

between a letter and a phoneme (the sound made

when you say the word). For example, the word “dog”

has three phonemes: /d/, /o/, and /g/. However, the word

“shape,” despite having five letters, has only three

phonemes: /sh/, /long-a/, and /p/. The English language

has approximately 45 different phonemes, which

correspond to letters or combinations of letters.

Through the process of segmentation, a phoneme

can have a particular pronunciation in one word and a

slightly different pronunciation in another.

Morphemes

Morphemes, the basic unit of morphology, are the smallest

meaningful unit of language. Thus, a morpheme is a series

of phonemes that has a special meaning. If a morpheme

is altered in any way, the entire meaning of the word can

be changed. Some morphemes are individual words

(such as “eat” or “water”). These are known as free

morphemes because they can exist on their own.

Other morphemes are prefixes, suffixes, or other linguistic

pieces that aren’t full words on their own but do affect

meaning (such as the “-s” at the end of “cats” or the

“re-” at the beginning of “redo.”) Because these

morphemes must be attached to another word to have

meaning, they are called bound morphemes.

Within the category of bound morphemes, there are

two additional subtypes: derivational and inflectional.

Derivational morphemes change the meaning or part

of speech of a word when they are used together.

For example, the word “sad” changes from an adjective

to a noun when “-ness” (sadness) is added to it. “Action”

changes in meaning when the morpheme “re-” is added

to it, creating the word “reaction.” Inflectional morphemes

modify either the tense of a verb or the number value of

a noun; for example, when you add an “-s” to “cat,” the

number of cats changes from one to more than one.

Lexemes

Lexemes are the set of inflected forms taken by a single

word. For example, members of the lexeme RUN include

“run” (the uninflected form), “running” (inflected form),

and “ran.” This lexeme excludes “runner” (a derived term

—it has a derivational morpheme attached).

Another way to think about lexemes is that they are

the set of words that would be included under one

entry in the dictionary—”running” and “ran” would be

found under “run,” but “runner” would not.

Syntax

Syntax is a set of rules for constructing full sentences

out of words and phrases. Every language has a

different set of syntactic rules, but all languages

have some form of syntax. In English, the smallest

form of a sentence is a noun phrase (which might

just be a noun or a pronoun) and a verb phrase

(which may be a single verb).

Adjectives and adverbs can be added to the sentence

to provide further meaning. Word order matters in

English, although in some languages, order is of less

importance. For example, the English sentences

“The baby ate the carrot” and “The carrot ate the baby”

do not mean the same thing, even though they contain

the exact same words. In languages like Finnish, word

order doesn’t matter for general meaning—different

word orders are used to emphasize different parts

of the sentence.

Context

Context is how everything within language works

together to convey a particular meaning. Context

includes tone of voice, body language, and the words

being used. Depending on how a person says something,

holds his or her body, or emphasizes certain points of a

sentence, a variety of different messages can be conveyed.

For example, the word “awesome,” when said with

a big smile, means the person is excited about a situation.

“Awesome,” said with crossed arms, rolled eyes, and a

sarcastic tone, means the person is not thrilled with the

situation.

2. Kinds of Language Structure

a) Phonological Structure

Concerned with sounds of language (phonemes) and their patterns.

Example: The sound pattern /kæt/ for the word "cat."

b) Morphological Structure

Focuses on the formation of words from morphemes (smallest units of meaning).

Example: "unhappiness" = un- (prefix) + happy (root) + -ness (suffix).

c) Syntactic Structure

Deals with sentence formation and the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences.

Example: "The dog chased the cat" follows subject-verb-object order.

d) Semantic Structure

Concerns with the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.

Example: The sentence "He is a star" can mean a literal celestial body or a metaphorical praise.

e) Pragmatic Structure

Focuses on language use in context and how meaning is affected by situation.

Example: Saying "Can you pass the salt?" is a request, not a question about ability.

3. Examples of Language Structure

Phonological: /b/ and /p/ sounds differentiate "bat" and "pat".

Morphological: "Teacher" from "teach" + "-er".

Syntactic: "She reads books" (subject + verb + object).

Semantic: "Light" can mean illumination or not heavy.

Pragmatic: Saying "Nice job!" can be sincere or sarcastic depending on context.

Summary Table

Type of Structure	Focus	Example
Phonological	Sounds and pronunciation	/kæt/ (cat)
Morphological	Word formation	"happiness" = "happy" + "-ness"
Syntactic	Sentence construction	"The boy runs."
Semantic	Meaning of words and sentences	"Bank" (riverbank vs. financial institution)
Pragmatic	Language in context	"Can you open the window?" (request)

Feedback:

What have we learnt today?

3-Conclusion:

In conclusion, understanding the different kinds of

language structures helps us appreciate how language

functions systematically to communicate effectively.

4-(Q & A) Session:

I allocate time for questions and answers to clarify doubts and

encourage discussion. This segment reinforces learning by

addressing specific concerns.

1-What is meant by' Linguistics"?

2-To what extent is"Linguistics" useful?

3-Linguistics include several branches. Discuss.

4-The five main components of language are phonemes,

morphemes, lexemes, syntax, and context. Along with grammar,

semantics, and pragmatics, these components work together

to create meaningful communication among individuals.

Illustrate.

5-What are the kind of language structure?

6-Give examples of language structure.

With my regards. Thank you. Good bye.

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Phonetics

Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that studies the

physical sounds of human speech. It examines how

sounds are produced (articulatory phonetics),

transmitted (acoustic phonetics), and received

(auditory phonetics).

Meaning of Phonetics

Phonetics focuses on the physical properties of speech

sounds, regardless of the language. It involves analyzing

the features of sounds such as their articulation, acoustic

properties, and auditory perception.

Kinds of Phonetics

Articulatory Phonetics
Studies how speech sounds are produced by the vocal organs (e.g., tongue, lips, vocal cords).
Example: The difference between /p/ and /b/ is in voicing; /p/ is voiceless, /b/ is voiced.
Acoustic Phonetics
Analyzes the physical properties of speech sounds as sound waves, such as frequency, amplitude, and duration.
Example: The spike in the wave pattern of a long vowel like /aː/ compared to a short vowel /a/.
Auditory Phonetics
Examines how speech sounds are perceived by the ear and processed by the brain.
Example: Recognizing sounds like /s/ and /z/ as distinct despite similar pronunciation.

Examples of Speech Sounds

Vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/

Consonants: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /s/, /z/, /m/, /n/, /l/, /r/

Summary

Phonetics provides the scientific foundation for

understanding speech sounds, their production,

transmission, and reception. It is essential in fields

like linguistics, language teaching, speech therapy,

and artificial speech systems.

Syntax

Meaning:

Syntax refers to the set of rules and principles that

govern the structure and arrangement of words,

phrases, and clauses in a language to form

grammatically correct sentences. It deals with how

different elements of a sentence are organized to

convey meaning effectively.

Kinds of Syntax:

Basic Syntax:
- Focuses on the fundamental rules of sentence formation.
- Concerned with the order of words in simple sentences.
Transformational Syntax:
- Studies how sentences can be transformed into different forms while maintaining their meaning.
- Developed by Noam Chomsky, involving transformations like questions from statements.
Generative Syntax:
- A theory that suggests that underlying rules generate all possible sentences in a language.
- Emphasizes the innate capacity of humans to produce language.
Syntactic Structures:
- Analyzes the structure of sentences through phrase structure rules.
Dependency Syntax:
- Focuses on the relationships between words in a sentence, such as which words depend on others.

Examples:

Simple sentence:
- The cat sleeps.
  (Subject + Verb + Object)
Complex sentence:
- Although it was raining, she went for a walk.
  (Main clause + subordinate clause)
Transformational example:
- He is reading a book. (statement)
- Is he reading a book? (question, transformed from the statement)
Sentence with different word order:
- The dog chased the cat.
- Chased the dog the cat. (less common, but illustrates syntactic structure)

Summary:

Syntax is essential in understanding how sentences are

constructed and interpreted in a language. Different

kinds of syntactic analysis help linguists understand

language structure, from basic sentence formation to

complex transformational rules.

Semantics

Definition of Semantics:

Semantics is the branch of linguistics that studies the

meaning of words, phrases, sentences, and texts.

It explores how language conveys meaning and how

different expressions relate to the concepts or objects

they refer to.

Meaning of Semantics

Semantics focuses on understanding how language

expresses meaning, including the relationships between

signs and what they stand for, as well as the

interpretation of meaning in context.

Kinds of Semantics

Lexical Semantics:
- Concerned with the meaning of words and their relationships.
- Example: Synonyms ("big" and "large"), antonyms ("hot" and "cold"), polysemy ("bank" as a financial institution or riverbank).

Phrasal and Sentential Semantics:
- Focuses on how meanings combine in phrases and sentences.
- Example: The difference in meaning between “The cat is on the mat” and “The mat is on the cat.”

Formal Semantics:
- Uses formal logic to analyze meaning precisely.
- Example: Analyzing the logical structure of conditionals like “If it rains, then the ground gets wet.”

Cognitive Semantics
Considers how language reflects human cognition and thought processes.
- Example: Concepts like “anger” and “joy” are expressed through various words and metaphors.

Examples of Semantics:

Type of Meaning	Example	Explanation
Lexical	"Book" (a set of written pages)	The specific meaning of the word "book."
Semantic Relations	Synonyms: "Happy" and "Joyful"	Words with similar meanings.
	Antonyms: "Hot" and "Cold"	Words with opposite meanings.
	Hyponyms: "Rose" and "Flower"	"Rose" is a specific type within the category "flower."
Sentential	"It is raining."	The overall meaning conveyed by the sentence.
	"All humans are mortal."	A universal statement expressing a general truth.
Ambiguity	"He saw her duck."	Can mean he saw her lower her head or saw her pet duck.

Summary

In summary, semantics is essential for understanding

how language encodes meaning, with various types

and examples illustrating its scope across words,

phrases, and sentences.

Pragmatics

Meaning:

Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics that studies how

context influences the way language is interpreted.

It focuses on the ways people use language in real-life

situations to communicate effectively, beyond the literal

meaning of words.

Kinds of Pragmatics:

Deictic Expressions: Words or phrases whose meaning depends on the context, such as "this," "that," "here," "now," "you," "me."

Speech Acts: The actions performed via speaking, like requesting, promising, apologizing, commanding.

Conversational Implicature: Implied meanings that are not explicitly stated but understood through context.

Presupposition: Assumptions or beliefs implied by an utterance.

Politeness and Social Context: How social relationships affect language use, including politeness strategies.

Examples:

Deictic Expression:
- Person A: "Can you pass me that book?" (The meaning of "that" depends on what is near the speaker or listener at that moment.)

Speech Act:
- Saying "I apologize" is performing the act of apologizing.
- Saying "Could you open the window?" is a request.

Conversational Implicature:
- If someone says, "It's cold in here," they might be implying "Please close the window," even if they didn't say it explicitly.

Politeness:
- Saying "Would you mind helping me?" instead of "Help me" shows politeness and respect.

Summary:

Pragmatics helps us understand how people communicate

meaning through context, social norms, and shared

knowledge, making language a powerful tool for

effective interaction.

Sociolinguistics

Socio-linguistics is the branch of linguistics that studies

how language varies and changes in social groups, and

how social factors influence language use. It explores

the relationship between language and society,

including aspects like social identity, power, culture,

and context.

Meaning

Sociolinguistics examines how language functions in

social contexts, focusing on variations in speech based

on factors such as region, class, gender, age, ethnicity,

and social setting. It seeks to understand how language

reflects and shapes social identities and relationships.

Kinds of Sociolinguistics

Variationist Sociolinguistics: Studies how language varies systematically across different social groups and contexts. Example: Dialect studies.

Interactional Sociolinguistics: Focuses on how language is used in conversation and social interactions to construct social meaning.

Ethnography of Communication: Examines how cultural norms influence language use within specific communities.

Sociolinguistic Theory: Explores broader theoretical issues about language variation and social structure.

Language and Identity: Investigates how language contributes to social identities like gender, ethnicity, or class.

Examples

Dialects and Accents: Different regions have distinct ways of speaking (e.g., British English vs. American English).

Code-Switching: Switching between languages or dialects depending on social context (e.g., bilingual communities).

Gendered Speech: Men and women may use different linguistic features in certain contexts.

Language and Power: Formal language used by authority figures versus informal speech among friends.

Social Class and Vocabulary: Certain words or pronunciations associated with socioeconomic status.

Summary

In summary, sociolinguistics helps us understand

the dynamic relationship between society and language,

revealing how language both influences and reflects

social identities and structures.

Language acquisition

Meaning:

Language acquisition is the process by which humans

learn and develop the ability to understand, produce,

and use language effectively. It involves acquiring

vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and the social

and cultural norms associated with communication.

Kinds of Language Acquisition:

First Language Acquisition:

The natural process of learning one's native language

during early childhood.

Example: A child learning to speak English by interacting

with family members.

Second Language Acquisition:
- Learning a new language after already having mastered a first language, often through formal education or immersion.
- Example: An adult learning Spanish in a classroom setting.

Foreign Language Acquisition:
- Learning a language in a non-native environment, often with limited immersion.
- Example: A student studying French in their home country without frequent interaction with native speakers.

Third Language Acquisition:
- Learning additional languages beyond the first two, often building on previous knowledge.
- Example: A person who speaks English and Spanish then learning German.

Examples :

A baby begins to babble at around 6 months and then starts forming words by around 12 months.

A child learns to ask questions and form sentences as part of their language development.

An adult traveling to Japan may learn to order food and ask for directions in Japanese through language classes or self-study.

Summary:

Language acquisition encompasses various processes

and stages through which individuals learn and become

proficient in languages, whether as their first language

during childhood or additional languages later in life.

Dialectology

Meaning :

Dialectology is the branch of linguistics that studies

regional or social variations in language, known as

dialects. It examines how language varies across

different geographic areas or social groups, analyzing

differences in pronunciation (phonology), vocabulary

(lexicon), grammar (syntax and morphology), and usage.

Kinds of Dialects:

Regional Dialects: Variations of a language spoken in different geographic areas.
Example: American English vs. British English; the Southern dialect in the U.S.

Social Dialects (Sociolects): Variations associated with social classes, education levels, or social groups.
Example: Cockney (London working class) vs. Received Pronunciation (standard British).

Ethnic or Cultural Dialects: Variations influenced by ethnicity or cultural identity.
Example: African American Vernacular English (AAVE).

Historical Dialects: Older forms of language that have evolved over time.
Example: Middle English dialects from Chaucer’s time.

Examples of Dialects:

British English Dialects: Cockney, Scouse (Liverpool), Geordie (Newcastle).

American English Dialects: Southern American, New York City English, Midwest English.

Other Languages:
- Spanish dialects in Spain vs. Latin American Spanish.
- Chinese dialects like Mandarin, Cantonese, Shanghainese.

Summary:

Dialectology helps linguists understand how languages

evolve and differ across regions and social groups,

shedding light on cultural identities and historical

language development.

Computational linguistics

Definition:

Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that

combines computer science and linguistics to develop

algorithms and models that enable computers to

understand, interpret, generate, and respond to

human language.

Meaning:

It involves creating computational tools and systems that

can process natural language (spoken or written) in a way

that is meaningful and useful. This includes tasks such as

language translation, speech recognition, sentiment

analysis, and information extraction.

Kinds of Computational Linguistics:

Natural Language Processing (NLP):
- Focuses on enabling computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language.
- Examples: Chatbots, virtual assistants (like Siri or Alexa), machine translation.

Natural Language Understanding (NLU):
- Concerned with machine comprehension of human language.
- Examples: Sentiment analysis, question-answering systems.

Natural Language Generation (NLG):
- Focuses on producing human-like language output from data or machine representations.
- Examples: Automated report generation, summarization.

Speech Processing:
- Deals with recognizing and synthesizing spoken language.
- Examples: Speech-to-text systems, voice-controlled devices.

Computational Syntax and Semantics:
- Analyzes sentence structure and meaning.
- Examples: Parsing algorithms, semantic role labeling.

Corpus Linguistics:
- Uses large collections of text (corpora) for linguistic analysis.
- Examples: Frequency analysis, collocation detection.

Examples of Applications:

Machine Translation: Google Translate translates text or speech from one language to another.

Sentiment Analysis: Analyzing social media posts to determine public opinion.

Chat-bots and Virtual Assistants: Siri, Alexa, and customer service bots respond to user queries.

Information Extraction: Extracting relevant data from large texts, such as extracting names, dates, or locations from documents.

Speech Recognition: Transcribing spoken words into written text for dictation software.

Text Summarization: Automatically generating concise summaries of lengthy articles.

Summary:

Computational linguistics bridges language and

technology, enabling machines to process and

generate human language through various methods

and applications, significantly impacting communication,

information processing, and automation.

Click below to learn about each:

Introduction to the linguistics of English.

What is Linguistics?

What is Morphology?

What is Neuro-linguistics?

What is Sociolinguistics?

What is Language Acquisition?

What is Historical Linguistics?

Classification of Languages

Linguistics Bibliography

What is Pragmatics?

Collocation:

A collocation is two or more words that often go together.

These combinations just sound "right" to native English

speakers, who use them all the time.

Click here to know more about Collocation.

Examples:

Word "BIG":

The word big is often used in collocations with a

happening or event, for example:

a big accomplishment

a big decision

a big disappointment

a big failure

a big improvement

a big mistake

a big surprise

Word " Great":

EX; Great admiration, anger, enjoyment,

excitement, fun,happiness, joy,....."

Other Collocations :

Get a chance, get a job, get ready, get a ticket, get a

call, save and sound, sales force, satisfy demand, satisfy, keep a diary, keep a promise, keep a

secret, keep an appointment, keep busy, keep fit,

keep in touch, keep quiet, kick a goal, know better,....

Kinds of Collocations:

Adjective and noun

Bright color.

Nouns and verbs

The internet has created opportunities for his company.

Noun + noun

a surge of anger

a sense of pride

a pang of nostalgia

Verb and expression with prepositions

You could see his sister swelling with pride.

I was filled with horror when I read the newspaper

report of the war.

When she spilt apple-juice on her new blue skirt the

little girl burst into tears.

Verbs and adverbs

He pulled steadily on the rope and helped her to safety.

She placed the beautiful jar gently on the window ledge.

‘I love you and want to marry you,’ Michael whispered

softly to Clare.

He smiled proudly as he looked at the photos of his

new granddaughter.

Adverbs and adjectives

Ben and Jane are happily married.

You are fully aware that there are serious problems.

George was blissfully unaware that he was in danger.

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Idioms:

Image result for Idioms

English Language is rich in its idiomatic expressions or

in other words, it is rich in its idioms as a an important

resource of knowledge in English . An idiom is a

common word or phrase with a culturally understood

meaning that differs from what its composite words'

denotations would suggest.

If English isn't your native language, the best thing that

you can do is have conversations with native speakers

and ask them about phrases that you don't understand.

Idiomatic expressions are a type of informal English

that have a meaning different from the meaning of the

words in the expression.

Since idioms are influenced by the culture, learning the

idioms of a language can be very interesting and

enlightening! These idioms are various and several.

At the same time , they are little difficult studies.

The learner must make great efforts to master them.

Idioms :

A) A B C D

B) E F G H

C) I J K l

D) M N O P

E) Q R S T

F) U V W

X Y Z

Idioms lesson video.

Examples:

A day late and a dollar short

A fool and his money are soon parted

A fool at 40 is a fool forever

Around the clock

Arm and a leg

Make waves, make or break, off the top of your head,

off hands, off the wall, out of the woods, out of the left

field, ugly as a stick, uncle Sam, under a cloud, up to

the neck, wag the dog, waiting in the wings, whole nine

yards, whole shebang,

Phrasal Verbs:

It’s like cooking: combine flour and water, stick it in the

oven for a bit, and you have bread. If you combine a verb

and certain prepositions, and stick it somewhere in a

sentence, you have a phrasal verb.

However, baking the dough in a gas oven will obviously

result in a different flavor than baking the dough over an

open fire; phrasal verbs don’t require such varied

treatment to have a different meaning, even if you’re

working with the same two words.

Sometimes all that’s required is they phrasal verb being

used in a different room of the house. This is where

the idiomatic meaning comes in.

Click here to know more about Phrasal Verbs.

Examples:

Look:

Look at, Look for, Look out, Look after, Look

like, Look up, Look around, Look back, Look down,

Look in,......

Get:

up, back, in, out, on, off, along, ahead, on, in,.....

Pick:

Pick up, Pick out, Take back, come up with, pay for,

sell off, sell out, try on, try out, bring in, queue, fork

out, splash out, blow up, break down,...

Click here to know more about Phrasal Verbs.

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Slang

Slang is a type of language consisting of words and

phrases that are considered to be very informal more

common in speech than in writing typically restricted

to a particular context or group of people.

The problem for learners of English is to know when

or when not to use slang. Many people condemn slang,

but in fact we all use it. The trick is to use slang in the

right context.

For the learner, perhaps the first thing to remember is

that slang is normally spoken, not written. The second

thing is that you may wish to learn slang so that you

can understand it when you hear it, but not

necessarily to use it.

Click here to know more about Slang of English Language.

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Examples:

Bail — Intransitive verb for leaving abruptly.

Feeling blue; have the blues —

A feeling of depression or sadness.

A buck — Slang term for a the American dollar.

By the skin of (my/your/his/her) teeth — just barely.

Creep (n.) — An unpleasantly weird/strange person.

Couch Potato — A lazy person who spends the bulk

of their time engaged in things that can be done while

sitting on a couch.

Cram — To study feverishly before an exam typically

done after neglecting to study consistently.

Crash — To abruptly fall asleep, or to show up without

invitation.

Down to earth — And adjective for practicality and

lack of pretense.

Drive up the wall — To irritate.

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Chunks

When experienced readers read a text, they are able

to recognize groups of words, such as noun phrases

or verb phrases, that go together to create meaning.

This is known as 'chunking' and it is a way of

describing how fluent readers are able

to read a text.

Click here to know more about Chunks.

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1-Chunks in speaking:

Examples:

We use chunks like:

1-You know,

2-You know what I mean,

3-I know what you’re saying,to check and show

understanding between speaker and listener.

2-Chunks in writing:

On the other hand,................

First of all..............

As a matter of fact,...

As a result,..........

And so forth,..........

3-Chunks as frames:

1- I don't know if...............

2-You know the boy who cried in the street yesterday?

Linguistics .

Linguistics

Why is linguistics important?

Language Structure

Phonemes

Morphemes

Lexemes

Syntax

Context

Summary Table

Phonetics

Meaning of Phonetics

Kinds of Phonetics

Examples of Speech Sounds

Summary

Meaning of Semantics

Kinds of Semantics

Examples of Semantics:

Meaning

Kinds of Sociolinguistics

Examples

Meaning:

Kinds of Computational Linguistics:

Examples of Applications: